How India is governing its water resources

India’s water crisis is often described as one of scarcity. Yet the deeper reality is a paradox: the country receives nearly 4,000 billion cubic metres of annual rainfall, but only a fraction of this water is captured, stored or used efficiently, highlighting a deeper institutional challenge. The question confronting policymakers is not merely how much water India has, but how its water is governed. As India works toward the global commitments of the UN (Sustainable Development Goal 6), and the national aspiration of becoming a developed economy by 2047, strengthening the architecture of water governance will be central to sustaining economic growth and social well-being.

Enduring paradox

India’s hydrological arithmetic reveals striking contradictions. The country supports nearly one-fifth of the world’s population but has access to only about 4% of global freshwater resources. According to the NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index, around 600 million people face high to extreme water stress. At the same time, India receives substantial precipitation each year. Hydrological assessments indicate that while total water availability is high, only about 1,100 billion cubic metres are considered usable, due to limitations in storage infrastructure, uneven rainfall distribution and ecological constraints.

The decline in per-capita water availability illustrates this growing stress. In the early years after independence, water availability exceeded 5,000 cubic metres per person annually. Today it has fallen to around 1,400 cubic metres. Groundwater extraction has become the principal coping mechanism. India is now the world’s largest groundwater user, accounting for roughly a quarter of global extraction. This dependence has enabled agricultural expansion and rural livelihoods, but it has also resulted in declining water tables across several regions. These realities point to a central conclusion: India’s water crisis is as much institutional as it is hydrological.

On water governance

India’s water governance operates through a complex, multi-level institutional structure involving the Union government, State governments and local bodies. At the national level, the Ministry of Jal Shakti serves as the nodal authority responsible for water resources, drinking water supply and sanitation. There is also the Central Water Commission which focuses primarily on surface water planning, river basin development and flood control, while the Central Ground Water Board assesses groundwater resources and provides scientific inputs for sustainable aquifer management.

Additionally, the NITI Aayog evaluates water governance performance across States through indicators such as the Composite Water Management Index. This benchmarking mechanism has helped introduce accountability and evidence-based policymaking into the water sector. However, India’s federal constitutional structure places most water-related responsibilities with the States. Irrigation, water supply and groundwater regulation fall primarily within State jurisdiction. As a result, State irrigation departments, urban water boards and local governments play a decisive role in implementing water policies. This multi-layered system reflects India’s federal design but also creates coordination challenges.

To address institutional fragmentation, the Union government has increasingly relied on national missions that align central funding with State-level implementation. One of the most transformative initiatives has been the Jal Jeevan Mission, launched in 2019, to provide functional tap connections to rural homes. Recognising the scale of the task, the mission has been extended until 2028 to enable States to achieve universal coverage.

Groundwater sustainability is being addressed through the Atal Bhujal Yojana, which promotes participatory aquifer management in water-stressed regions. By encouraging community-based groundwater budgeting and monitoring, the programme attempts to correct the long-standing gap in groundwater regulation. The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana promotes micro-irrigation technologies and improved water management practices. Given that agriculture consumes the majority of India’s freshwater resources, improving irrigation efficiency is essential.

Urban water management is addressed through the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation, which aims to expand water supply networks, sewage treatment systems and wastewater reuse in cities. River basin restoration has also gained prominence through initiatives such as the Namami Gange Programme, which combines pollution control, sewage treatment and ecological restoration in the Ganga basin.

A circular water economy

India’s water governance is moving toward a more integrated, circular approach. Global best practices underscore the value of wastewater reuse, efficient irrigation, and technological innovation. Expanding wastewater recycling in Indian cities can ease pressure on freshwater resources, while better crop choices and irrigation methods can improve agricultural water productivity. India’s water future will depend less on how much rain it receives and more on how well it is governed. By aligning governance with scientific knowledge, technological innovation, and participatory approaches, India can transform its water economy from a cycle of scarcity to a framework of sustainability.

Priyanka Vadrevu is an independent researcher in water resources management, climate change and disaster risk resilience and National President – Ecological & Economic Resilience Council, WICCI